November is National Adoption Month

The Heart Gallery is a traveling exhibit made up of portraits featuring children currently in foster care in the Houston area. Each portrait also includes the child’s name and age. A short biography on each child can be found on the Heart Gallery’s website. The goal of the art exhibit is to find families for these children by actively showing and hosting exhibits in the community.

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Advancing Access to Good Jobs for All: Celebrating National Disability Employment Awareness Month

People with disabilities represent over 1 billion people across the planet and around 13 percent of the U.S. population. October is National Disability Employment Awareness Month (NDEAM), an opportunity to recognize the contributions that people with disabilities add to America’s workforce and economy. NDEAM is also an opportunity to learn about the advancements made by disability rights activists in advocating for equality and equity in the workplace.

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Mutiny? The Port Chicago Trial and Houston's Own Local History

80 years ago today, one of the most infamous mutiny trials in U.S. history ended.

It would not be until July 17th, 2024, that all of the seamen involved would be exonerated by the U.S. Navy. However, many people are still unaware of the Port Chicago Mutiny trial and its historical context. This incident began after a massive wartime disaster on the Navy base, and soon over 200 Black Navy seamen were accused of mutiny for refusing to load weapons in the unsafe working conditions at Port Chicago.

What is mutiny? 

Mutiny is a serious offense in both military and naval contexts. It is defined as the act of openly resisting, disobeying, or attempting to overthrow lawful authority, particularly by soldiers or sailors against their commanding officers. In legal terms, mutiny typically involves a group of individuals acting together to refuse orders, revolt, or disrupt military operations.

The United States' Uniform Code of Military Justice addresses mutiny or sedition in 10 U.S. Code Art. 94. (§ 894.) and states "A person who is found guilty of attempted mutiny, mutiny, sedition, or failure to suppress or report a mutiny or sedition shall be punished by death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct".

Image by Petra from Pixabay

Key Elements of Mutiny:

- Open rebellion: A refusal to obey orders or attempt to overthrow authority.

- Group action: Typically involves multiple individuals acting together in defiance of orders.

- Serious disruption of order: Mutiny usually leads to a breakdown of discipline, jeopardizing the safety or mission of the military unit or nation.

Examples of Mutiny in U.S. History:

A notable example from the early 19th century involved a young officer named Philip Spencer aboard the USS Somers, a U.S. Navy training vessel. Spencer, along with several other crew members, was accused of plotting a mutiny to take control of the ship. In response to the potential threat, the ship’s captain ordered the immediate hanging of Spencer and two others. This case raised questions about the application of mutiny charges and the severity of the punishment.

This incident occurred during the Vietnam War, when two sailors aboard a U.S. merchant ship mutinied and hijacked the ship in protest and ordered the crew to sail to Cambodia. On November 4, 1970, one of the alleged mutineers, Clyde McKay, escaped from Cambodian government custody, allegedly planning to join the Khmer Rouge. The circumstances surrounding his death are unconfirmed but his remains were repatriated to U.S. custody in 1990. His co-defendant Alvin Glatkowski was tried and found guilty in U.S. Federal Court on charges including mutiny. He was sentenced to ten years in prison in 1971.

Port Chicago Disaster and Mutiny Trial

The "Port Chicago Mutiny" took place on July 17, 1944 at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in California, a key facility for the U.S. Navy during World War II. The incident occurred when African American sailors, performing the dangerous task of loading munitions onto ships, protested the unsafe working conditions and the poor treatment they faced due to racial discrimination. The armed forces were still segregated at the time.

A catastrophic explosion at the facility killed 320 sailors and civilians and injured 390 others, many of whom were Black sailors. Afterwards, 258 of the remaining sailors refused to continue working under the same hazardous conditions, without proper safety measures being implemented. The work stoppage was driven by reasonable concern about the unsafe conditions, as well as the denial of 30-day "survivor leave" to Black sailors, which included those injured in the blast. The sailors who had just witnessed and helped clean up the aftermath of a horrendous explosion caused by the pressure to quickly load explosives, without proper training, became overwhelmed with the situation and simply stopped marching when ordered to load another barge. After some confusion from superiors, the men continued to refuse orders to load the munitions and were marched to a barge where they would be imprisoned for several days.

In response, the U.S. Navy charged 50 of the sailors with mutiny for their refusal to work and the other 208 were court-martialed for disobeying orders and suffered loss of pay and benefits. The trial, held in 1944, was one of the most significant and controversial military trials of the war. Thurgood Marshall, then working for the NAACP, provided legal counsel to their lawyer, Gerald E. Veltmann, and helped publicize the case. He argued that the men were not mutineers but victims of gross negligence and racial injustice. 

The seamen were found guilty of mutiny, and 49 of them were sentenced to varying terms of prison. None received the death penalty, as was a possibility under mutiny charges. Their convictions did not sit well with many in the military or civil rights organizations, including First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, who viewed the trial as unjust. The sailors’ actions were seen by many as a legitimate protest against dangerous working conditions and racial discrimination, and campaigns from the NAACP continued in their defense. Forty-seven of the men were released in 1946, after the sentences were reduced due to the ending of the war and an appeal brief filed by Thurgood Marshall.

The Port Chicago incident and the subsequent trial highlighted systemic racism within the U.S. military and raised public awareness about the treatment of African American soldiers during World War II. President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 in 1948, which mandated the desegregation of the armed forces. This order was a direct response to the pressures and injustices revealed by incidents like the Port Chicago trial.

64 Members of the 24th Infantry were present at the Mutiny Trial in November 1917. Image available on the Internet and included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107.

The Houston Riot of 1917

The Port Chicago incident and the aftermath of the trial stands in contrast to a similar situation which happened right here in Houston, 27 years prior. The Houston Riot of 1917 was a violent confrontation between African American soldiers stationed at Camp Logan and white police and armed citizens.

The riot occurred in August 1917 against the backdrop of racial tension in Houston. Many white residents were hostile toward the armed Black servicemen entering the city. African American soldiers from the 24th Infantry Regiment were stationed at Camp Logan, a military base located outside the city, where they had experienced unwelcome treatment and were treated as second-class citizens.

What would be described as a race riot began after a white police officer, J. H. C. Bell, assaulted a Black woman and arrested a Black soldier who intervened. When Cpl. Charles Baltimore, a Black military policemen with the battalion, inquired about the arrest, an argument ensued and the policeman assaulted Baltimore. He then shot at him three times as he fled and chased him into an unoccupied house before taking him to police headquarters. A group of soldiers from Camp Logan decided to march on the police station, in current day Fourth Ward, to secure his release.

The situation escalated when soldiers heard rumors of a white mob coming to attack them. They armed themselves and began to march into the city, firing toward where they believed would-be attackers were located. For roughly two hours after they clashed with local police and armed white residents. During the violence, sixteen white people, including police officers, were killed, and numerous others were injured. Four Black servicemen were also killed.

Following the riot, authorities rounded up 118 Black soldiers, many of whom were accused of participating in the violence and many who were likely uninvolved. The court martial for the soldiers was conducted in two days and the soldiers were not given time for a proper defense or allowed an appeal. A total of 110 soldiers were found guilty. A total of 19 men were hanged, while 63 received life sentences. This severe punishment reflected the prevailing racial attitudes and the desire by authorities to send a strong message to Black soldiers and the Black community.

However, soon after this event, the U.S. Army changed its uniform code of military justice to prevent executions without a meaningful appeal. The Houston Riot of 1917 is still viewed as a symbol of the racial tensions and systemic racism faced by Black soldiers during World War I. In November 2023, the Army set aside all 110 convictions and granted the men honorable discharges, acknowledging they were not given fair trials and faced threats and provocations leading up to the event.

A Long Road to Exoneration

Thurgood Marshall was inspired by events like those in Camp Logan to take up the cause of the Port Chicago 50. At the time, the NAACP was following cases of Black servicemen being assaulted or lynched and other white supremacist violence and discrimination experienced by servicemen, which had grown after the first World War.  His work on this case led to a very different outcome for the sailors at Port Chicago and influenced the legal desegregation of the Armed Forces. However, as with many other instances, the legal desegregation of the Navy did not immediately solve the issues at hand. De facto segregation and discrimination continued.

Although not charged with mutiny, nineteen Black sailors were charged following an alleged race riot aboard the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk, off the coast of Vietnam on Oct. 11, 1972. The crewmen were protesting a perceived imbalance in the enforcement of discipline between white and Black sailors by officers on board. Nearly 60 crewmen were wounded in a two-day disturbance. Shortly after, interracial fighting broke out onboard the USS Constellation, which led to sit-in strikes onboard by Black sailors. In contrast to the peaceful protest of the Port Chicago seamen in 1944, the Navy chose not to define these events as mutinies. However, the Black sailors were punished in both instances. 

In 1999, Port Chicago survivor Freddie Meeks was officially pardoned by President Bill Clinton, and the case became a symbol of the broader struggles for civil rights and racial equality in the military. All 258 men involved were not officially exonerated until July 2024. Ultimately, the trial and following support for the Port Chicago sailors was a significant turning point in addressing race relations in the U.S. armed forces. Yet, incidents such as those on the USS Kitty Hawk and USS Constellation show Black servicemen still had a long road ahead in achieving equitable conditions and treatment in the U.S. armed forces after desegregation.

A detailed history of the Port Chicago disaster and mutiny trial can be found in the book The Port Chicago 50: Disaster, Mutiny, and the Fight for Civil Rights by Steve Sheinkin. It is also covered in an Emmy Award winning documentary from 1990 presented by Danny Glover. You can view more history and archival documents from the Port Chicago Alliance and the National Park Service's website for the National Memorial for Port Chicago.